In the print version, this article is published as:
Adhikary, N. M. (2010c). Sahridayata in communication. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4(1), 150-160.

This article describes sahridayata, which has been introduced in the communication discipline and is the core concept in the sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC).

Here, the discussion will be focused primarily on two issues – sahridayata as a ‘concept’ firstly, and as a ‘construct’ secondly.

It is to note that the article is written as a part of the series of works on the SMC. In broader context, it not only continues the Hinducentric study of communication, but also makes contribution to what is sometimes referred as the Asiacentric School of communication theories (Chen, 2006; Dissanayake, 2009; Edmondson, 2009; Miike, 2008, 2010).

The concept

The concept sahridayata comes from the word sahridaya. Whereas the former refers to a quality, characteristic, or state of being or becoming, the latter names a person of that faculty. Thus, a sahridaya is one who has attained sahridayata.

According to Vidya Niwas Misra (2008, p. 97), the word sahridaya has two components: saman (same, equal, harmony, being) and hridaya (heart, becoming). He draws on the following Rigvedic sutra to clarify its meaning: “Samani va aakutih saman hrydayanivah saman mastu somano yatha vah susahasatih,” that is, “let our minds be in harmony, our hearts be in harmony, let our thinking be in harmony, our thought processes be in harmony so that we can live for a meaningful living of all-together” (ibid.).

Misra (2008) draws on “Samanjasya Sukta” (Atharvaveda 6.64):
Live in harmony, in accord with each other, understanding each other, suffused with each other, with your hearts mingling as the Gods did, in the earlier times with an understanding of their interrelationship. That the Gods also desire that the mantras of the humans be the same. Similarly their meetings and interaction and being are same comprehending all their vows their consciousness pervading them is the same. Men invoke the Gods, with the same voice and vision, we invoke you, and supplicate you, let the same consciousness flows through us that our thoughts are the same, our hearts are the same and our minds are the same, so there can be greater accord between you and us. (qtd. in p. 72)

Misra emphasizes the need to understand the role of vak in the Hindu context of emotion in order to understand the Hindu poetic experience and the concept of sahridaya (p. 69). He has also drawn on two other concepts – sakhya, participatory communion, and samvad, a sounding together – while delineating the meaning of sahridayata.

Vedic teaching “Be humane and humanize others” (Rigveda –10.53.6) is significant for understanding sahridayata. As Saraswati (2001, pp. 35-36) observes, Vedas instruct humans “that all people should be mutually bound with each other; each one affectionately attracting the other, the way a cow showers her love and affection for her new-born calf” (Atharvaveda –3.30.1). And, everyone should look upon each other with a friend’s eye (Yajurveda –36.18).

Sahridayas have “common sympathetic heart” (Yadava, 1998, p. 188). In other words, a sahridaya is a “person in state of emotional intensity, i.e. a quality of emotional dimension coequal to that of the sender of the message of communicator” (Kundra, n.d., p. 200). In such background, sahridayata can be considered as “social preparedness” that “entails living amongst people, sharing their joys and sorrows but encompassing the entire humanity within, becoming a citizen of a world” (2008, p. 93). With such preparedness, universalization of bhava is possible and rasa experience is successful.
Aspects of sahridayata have been one of the major concerns of Sanskrit literary criticism. Kalidasa, Abhinava, Bhavabhuti, and Kuntaka, including others, have discussed about sahridaya and sahridayata, and emphasized on combination of both ‘being’ and ‘becoming’ in this regard.
Joshi (2001) has drawn on Abhinavagupta, who portrays the poet and the reader as components of one universe:
The poet, poetic activity and sahridaya form the three aspects of one universe, the world of artistic creation (Kavya-samsara). Abhinavagupta describes the poet and the sahridaya as the twin aspects of the goddess of learning. At one end of creative activity is the poet and at the other is the appreciator. The poet creates the world of poetry and the sahridaya enjoys it. (p. 101)

Whereas the poet is concerned with ‘creation’ of message and the appreciator is concerned with its appreciation. In fact, ‘creation’ and ‘appreciation’ are interrelated. It is sahridayata that keeps the poet (sender) and the reader (receiver) in the ‘universe’ and they become able to share the poem (message).

For Kalidasa, as Misra (2008) observes, sahridayata is to become paryutsuk, that is,
to be quickened to the ebb and flow of life. It is neither to give visual pleasure, nor to feast to the tune of pleasurable sound, it is an angst, an agitation which dislocates through its pain, the person comfortably ensconced in his genial environment, through, quickening him for a moment to the call and the pull from afar, as empathy is inevitable. (p. 94)
In this situation, “there is always a possibility of the mite of individual existence being driven away to merge with the universal desire” (ibid.).

For Bhavabhuti, sahridayata is the consciousness (chaitanya) given to the heart to experience joys and sorrows (p. 95). For Kuntaka, a sahridaya not only “can hear all the pulses, all the heartbeats that the outer world offers,” but also “can conjoin the two impulses together of the excessive attachment of lover and the excessive detachment of the yogi” (pp. 101-102). Ideally, “Whoever is sahridaya has an intense concentrated memory, meditative dhyan-yoga, intellect, intense luminosity of creative and receptive faculty and the universe dissolves into this light to open anew” (Misra, 2008, p. 92).

In sum, sahridayata should be understood as
a poetic expression used for being or having common orientation. Sahridaya is not coterminous with predisposition in favor or against. It is much more than personality characteristics. It means identification of the ‘communicator’ with ‘receiver’ of communication. …
The postulate is that the greater the identification the greater is the success of communication. (Yadava, 1998, p. 188)

It is culture that provides the basis for sahridayata. “This notion of sahridaya is not an elitist notion as even an illiterate or a rustic person can imbibe the quality” (Misra, 2008, p. 16). Thus, it is not something exclusive. However, it is not that anyone in any condition can become a sahridaya. The role of culture is crucial in the attainment of sahridayata and becoming of sahridaya (p. 101-102, 114).

Treating sahridayata as a state of being and becoming, which is within the reach of commons, seems in consonance with the Hindu worldview. It is not as exclusive faculty; however, it certainly has prerequisites. Culture sets the foundation of sahridayata on which an individual has to undergo a natural course of evolution.

The construct

The concept of sahridayata, along with the concept of rasa, should not be limited in the domain of drama, poetry and aesthetics only. These concepts can be, and, in fact, have been, interpreted in the domain of modern communication discipline (Adhikary, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2007a, 2007b, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d, 2010e, 2010f, 2010g, 2010h, 2010i, 2011a, 2011b). [Also see: Acharya, 2011; Adhikary, 2008a, 2009c; Annapurna Shiksha, 2010; Jha, 2010a, 2010b; Khanal, 2008, pp. 21-22; Pant, 2009a, pp. 84-86, 2009b, p. 4, 2010, pp. 85-89.] In this course, the concept of sahridayata has been redefined and reinterpreted in order to designate the term for particular purpose in theorizing communication from Hindu perspective and presenting a model (the SMC). Thus, sahridayata is treated as a ‘construct’ – a combination of concepts, but with contextual import – thereby relating its exact meaning only to the context in which it is defined (Kerlinger, 2004; Wimmer and Dominick, 2003).

Hindu society is made up of complex relationships consisting of various – sometimes even conflcting – factors such as hierarchies of castes, social status, languages, cultures, and religious practices. In this background, asymmetrical relationships between communicating parties are prevalent in most of the cases. However, Hindus of different castes, social status, languages, cultures and religious cults are capable enjoying the very process of communication. Hindus have been able to receive and understand diverse, even contradictory, perceptions. Moreover, the ethics as conceived in Hinduism also envisions communionship between communicating parties.

It implies that there exists something that is binding the people and facilitating communication. Any model of communication, which claims to be of Hindu perspective or worldview, should be capable of identifying and incorporating that factor. In the SMC, the term sahridayata has been used to represent that factor, which binds the people as the communicating parties and facilitates the process of communication.

The introduction of the term sahridayata into communication is essentially due to its qualification in this regard. What had been said regarding sahridaya and sahridayata in the context of poetry is clearly sufficient for generalization to any form of communication. As it is done in other scientific disciplines also, there involves reinterpreting and/or redefining of the concept(s) and developing construct(s).
Whereas the concept(s) of sahridayata discussed and delineated in various Sanskrit texts envision an ideal state of being and becoming, the term as a ‘technical term’ in the SMC has been used in broader sense, and “refers to people with a capacity to send and receive messages” (Adhikary, 2009b, p. 74). Though ideally (as concept as discussed earlier) sahridaya is a person not only engaged in communication but also having attained a special state (sahridayata) it is not the only case in the framework of the SMC. Here, any parties engaged in communication and capable of identifying each other as sender and receiver of the process are also considered the sahridayas. It is to emphasize here that the SMC incorporates both the ideal (former) and general (latter) meanings of sahridayata.

In brief, sahridayata, as a ‘technical term’ or the ‘construct’, represents and wide range of relationship between communication parties. In the broadest sense, sahridayas are any such people who have capacity to send and receive messages. However, ideally, sahridayata is the state of common orientation, commonality or oneness, and sahridayas are those who have attained this state.

In the SMC, sahridayata provides explanation on how different communicating parties become able to pervade the unequal relationship prevailed in the society and the process of communication is facilitated. In other words, the term is meant to embody the sum of all those factors due to which the asymmetrical relationship between communicating parties does not hinder the two-way communication and hence mutual understanding.

Concluding remarks

As the construct, sahridayata is crucil in the SMC for ensuring the model being inherited with the Hindu ideal of communication for communion. Since its entitlement is as the construct its exact meaning relates to the context in which it is defined. However, its root is firmly established in earlier concept(s) from where it is drawn on. Thus, the term sahridayata has been used for designating all concepts and practices that are considered significant in ensuring communication for communion in Hindu society.

References

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In the print version, this article is published as:
Adhikary, N. M. (2010c). Sahridayata in communication. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4(1), 150-160.

nma@ku.edu.np

Dept. of Languages and Mass Communication, Kathmandu University

I come from a family that has Hindu spiritual background. My father was a renowned scholar of Vedic Hindu philosophy, religion and culture. Such family background has obviously made me aware of and compassionate to the vast knowledge contained in Vedic Hindu texts. And, I do possess a strong sense of ‘cultural identity consciousness’. When I was writing Thesis/Dissertation for my M.A.M.C.J. degree in 2003 (Adhikary, 2003), it was this ‘cultural identity consciousness’ that persuaded me to conduct research on “Communication in Hindu Concept.”

 

By virtue of being the inheritor of culturally rich civilization rooted to the Veda and having a history of millennia, a communication tradition, rich and refined both in theory and practice, has been an inseparable part of Hindu society. In other words, we indigenously inherit the concept of communication and have been practicing it since time-immemorial. Various ancient Hindu texts consist of inquisition/exposition on communication. In fact, communication is indigenous for us – both as practice and concept. But, I found the course curriculum too much West-centric and completely devoid of Hindu insights. It was quite unsatisfactory for me to find the curriculum completely devoid of Hindu insights given that even my cursory reading of the Vedic Hindu texts made me aware of the fact that insights from Hindu philosophy/religion/culture/knowledge system(s) can give what Maxmuller (1951) terms “new light and new life” (p. 38) to the communication discipline. This is why I started the academic endeavor of studying communication from Hindu perspective.
I come from a family that has Hindu spiritual background. My father was a renowned scholar of Vedic Hindu philosophy, religion and culture. Such family background has obviously made me aware of and compassionate to the vast knowledge contained in Vedic Hindu texts. And, I do possess a strong sense of ‘cultural identity consciousness’. When I was writing Thesis/Dissertation for my M.A.M.C.J. degree in 2003 (Adhikary, 2003), it was this ‘cultural identity consciousness’ that persuaded me to conduct research on “Communication in Hindu Concept.”
I have been continuing to research from Hindu perspective because I consider the need to develop a broad and deep appraisal of indigenous (more specifically, “Vedic Hindu” in my case) intellectual history, philosophy, arts, literature, and religion, including other branches of knowledge if we really want not to ignore the fact that societies have understood and practiced communication in their own ways. By saying this, I am not emphasizing the difference over commonalities among societies; rather, I am acknowledging unique cultural foundations of communication in the societies. What Asante (2006) says is pertinent here:
I contend that it is necessary for radically new intellectuals to speak of centredness as a way people own or assume agency within their own contexts. Such an idea is fundamentally more about humanity than materialism, winning and domination. It is more about a culture’s own sense of centring, that is, not marginalising one’s own culture, but claiming it as a valuable part of humanity. (p. 153).
Communication discipline would certainly be enriched when communication process is studied in the light of different cultural and philosophical traditions. According to Dissanayake (1988),
at this stage in the development of the scholarly study of communication, it is indeed important for everybody concerned to seek to broaden the domain of inquiry by exploring the concepts of communication that have been formulated in non-Western societies as a means of promoting a greater degree of understanding of the nature of human interaction. (p. 2).
Here, I would like to quote Miike (2008) too:
One of the urgent tasks of Asian communication scholars at this critical juncture is to conduct Asiacentric studies of Asian communication. They are now prodded to engage in human communication scholarship whose concepts, models, and principles are derived from Asian cultures as resources for theory building. (pp. 57-58).
It is evident that studying communication from Hindu perspective is significant. In my case, though it was started due to my ‘cultural identity consciousness’ I have been continuing such research due to profound reasons beyond my personal milieu.

निर्मलमणि अधिकारी भाषा तथा आमसञ्चार विभाग, काठमाडौँ विश्वविद्यालयमा प्राध्यापन गर्नुहुन्छ । अधिकारीका दुई दर्जन भन्दा बढी पुस्तक�कृतिहरूकासाथै दर्जनौँ अनुसन्धान एवं सयौँ विश्लेषणात्मक लेखहरू प्रकाशित भइसकेका छन् । विगतमा उहाँ अनलाइन न्यूजपोर्टल र विभिन्न पत्रपत्रिकाका सम्पादक, विभिन्न अनुसन्धान परियोजनाका निर्देशक एवम् मदन भण्डारी मेमोरियल कलेज, काठमाडौंमा पत्रकारिता विभागका प्रमुख रहिसक्नु भएको छ । अधिकारीद्वारा प्रतिपादित सञ्चारको साधारणीकरण ढाँचा (Sadharanikaran Model of Communication) लाई सञ्चारविज्ञानको गहन उपलब्धिका रूपमा स्वीकार गर्दै देश�विदेशका विभिन्न विश्वविद्यालयहरूमा अध्ययन�अध्यापन गरिन्छ । प्रस्तुत छ उहाँसँग गरिएको एक अन्तर्वार्ता :

आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिता विधामा तपाईँका पुस्तकहरु अत्यन्त रुचाइएको देखिन्छ । तिनका साथै अन्य विषयमा पनि तपाईँको कलम चलेको देखिन्छ । यसबारे केही बताइदिनु हुन्छ कि ?
लेखनको क्षेत्रमा मेरो प्रवेश साहित्यबाट भएको हो । समयक्रममा पत्रकारितामा संलग्न रही समाचार रिपोर्टिङ् तथा सम्पादन गर्ने उत्तरदायित्व वहन गरियो । स्तम्भकारका हैसियतमाचाहिँ मेरो लेखनको प्रमुख क्षेत्र सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक, धार्मिक एवं दार्शनिक चिन्तन�मनन रह्यो । त्यसैले मेरा कतिपय पुस्तकहरु साहित्य, संस्कृति, दर्शन आदि विधामा रहेका छन् । संख्यात्मक हिसाबले सबैभन्दा बढीचाहिँ आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारितासम्बन्धी पुस्तक प्रकाशित भएका छन् । पछिल्ला वर्षहरुमा मैले पुस्तक लेख्ने कामलाई स्थगित गरी अनुसन्धान गर्ने र अनुसन्धानात्मक लेख लेख्ने काममा बढी जोड दिएको छु ।

तपाईँका थुप्रै पुस्तकमध्ये सबैभन्दा सफल पुस्तक कुनलाई मान्नु हुन्छ ?
बजारको मापदण्डअनुसार भन्ने हो भने आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिता नै सबैभन्दा सफल पुस्तक हो । यो पुस्तकको पहिलो संस्करण वि.सं. २०६० मा प्रकाशित भएको थियो र वि.सं. २०६६ मा पाँचौँ संस्करण प्रकाशित भएको छ । छैटौँ संस्करणका लागि अनुरोध आइसकेको भए तापनि अन्य कार्यव्यस्तताका कारणले यतातिर लाग्न पाएको छैनँ । पुनर्मुद्रणलाईसमेत हिसाब गर्दा यो धेरै नै बिक्री भएको पुस्तक हो । चर्चाका हिसाबले भन्ने हो भने आस्थाको शान्ति�युद्ध (वि.सं. २०५७) ले राष्ट्रियसाथै अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय चर्चा पायो ।

तपाईँ यस क्षेत्रमा कहिलेदेखि लाग्नुभएको हो ?
तपाईँले �यस क्षेत्र� भनेर केलाई जनाउन खोज्नु भएको हो, त्यसअनुसार मैले फरक�फरक समयलाई सम्झनु पर्ने हुन्छ । लेखन�प्रकाशनको क्षेत्र हो भने मेरा रचना वा लेखोटहरु वि.सं. २०४६ सालबाटै प्रकाशित हुन थालेका थिए । पत्रकारिता क्षेत्रमा मेरो प्रत्यक्ष प्रवेश वि.सं. २०५२ सालमा भएको हो । पोखराबाट प्रकाशन हुने एक दैनिक अखबारको सम्वाददाताका हैसियतमा मैले पत्रकारिता आरम्भ गरेको थिएँ । मेरो पहिलो पुस्तक वि.सं. २०५३ सालमा प्रकाशित भएको थियो । आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिताको औपचारिक अध्ययन मैले वि.सं. २०५८ देखि गरेको हूँ । यस विषयमा नेपालमै स्नातकोत्तर तहको पढाइ सुरु हुँदा पहिलो समूहमै भर्ना भई पढियो र मैले वि.सं. २०५९�२०६० देखि आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिताको प्रशिक्षण�शिक्षण�प्राध्यापन सुरु गरेको हूँ ।

तपाईँ आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिता विधाको प्राध्यापन, अनुसन्धान तथा लेखन आदि क्षेत्रमा हुनुहुन्छ । यसरी फरक�फरक भूमिकालाई उत्तिकै सफलतापूर्वक निर्वाह गर्न सक्षम हुनुको रहस्य के हो ?
प्राध्यापन, अध्ययन तथा अनुसन्धान गर्नु र लेख्नु एक�आपसमा अन्तर्सम्बन्धित काम हुन् । अध्ययन, अनुसन्धान र लेखनमा प्रवृत्त हुने व्यक्ति मात्र विश्वविद्यालय तथा कलेजजस्ता उच्च तहमा प्राध्यापन गर्न योग्य हुन्छ । प्राध्यापनलाई पेसाका रुपमा अवलम्बन गरेका व्यक्तिले पनि अध्ययन, अनुसन्धान र लेखनलाई पटक्कै प्राथमिकता नदिनु त विकृति हो । यस पृष्ठभूमिलाई ख्याल राख्दा मैले आफ्नो पेसागत धर्म निर्वाह गर्ने प्रयत्न गरेको हो भन्नु नै तपाईँको जिज्ञासाको उपयुक्त जवाफ हो । थप कुरा के पनि हो भने पत्रकारितामा सम्पादकजस्तो माथिल्लो जिम्मेवारी, बहुराष्ट्रिय अनुसन्धान एजेन्सीको जागिर एवं राष्ट्रसंघीय एजेन्सीका आकर्षक अवसरलाईसमेत छोडेर प्राज्ञिक अध्ययन, अनुसन्धान, प्राध्यापन एवं प्रकाशनमा मैले आफ्नो उर्जा लगाइरहेको हुनाले तपाईँले भनेजस्तो अवस्था बनेको हो । यसमा कुनै त्यस्तो ठूलो रहस्य छैन, आफ्नो कर्ममा गतिशील बनेको हूँ । मेरो दृष्टिबिन्दुबाट हेर्दा यी सबै मेरा कर्म हुन्, त्यसैले उस्तै हुन् ।

अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको क्षेत्रमा तपाईँको संलग्नताको सुरुवात कहिले र कहाँबाट भएको थियो ?
वि.सं. २०५२ मा पत्रकारितामा प्रवेश गरेपछि म वि.सं. २०६१ को पूर्वाद्र्धसम्म मुख्यतया छापा माध्यममा संलग्न रहेँ । त्यसपछि नै हो अनलाइन पत्रकारितामा मेरो संलग्नता भएको । अनौपचारिक क्षेत्र सेवा केन्द्र (इन्सेक) द्वारा सञ्चालित द्विभाषी न्यूजपोर्टल इन्सेकअनलाइनको सम्पादकका हैसियतमा म करिब दुई वर्ष कार्यरत रहेँ । अनलाइन पत्रकारिता सुरु गरेलगत्तै ब्लगिङ्गमा पनि म सक्रिय रहेँ ।

काठमाडौं विश्वविद्यालयमा तपाईँ सञ्चार सिद्धान्त, मिडिया अनुसन्धान, पत्रकारिता, मिडिया नीतिशास्त्र आदिका साथै अनलाइन मिडिया पनि पढाउनु हुन्छ । अनेकौँ विषयहरुमध्येबाट अनलाइन मिडियालाई रोज्नुको कारण के होला ?
पढाउन सकिने विषयहरुको ठूलो सूचीबाट पाँच�छवटा विषयहरु छनोट गर्नु त्यति सजिलो हुँदैन । विगतमा अनलाइन मिडियामा काम गरिसकेको एवम् यसबारे औपचारिक अध्ययन गरेको जस्ता कारणले नै यो विषय पढाइएको होला । साथै, तपाईँले उल्लेख गरेका सञ्चार सिद्धान्त, मिडिया अनुसन्धान, पत्रकारिता, मिडिया नीतिशास्त्र जस्तै यो विषयप्रति पनि मेरो गहन रुचि रहनु पनि एक प्रमुख कारण हो नै ।

अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको उपयोगिताबारे यहाँको धारणा के छ ?
पत्रकारिताको एक विशेषता के छ भने कुनै पनि वैज्ञानिक एवं प्राविधिक विकासलाई यसले शीघ्र अङ्गीकार गर्दछ र बदलिँदो परिस्थितिअनुरुप आफूलाई अनुकूल तुल्याइहाल्छ । त्यसैले त छपाइ प्रविधिको विकाससँगै अगाडि बढेको पत्रकारिताले रेडियो, टेलिभिजन, इन्टरनेट जस्ता प्रविधिहरु आउनासाथ तिनलाई अङ्गीकार गर्न र नयाँ�नयाँ स्वरुपमा विकसित हुन सफल भयो । छापा, रेडियो, टेलिभिजन वा अनलाइन जुनसुकै माध्यमबाट गरिए पनि पत्रकारिताको आधारभूत कुरा उही हो । उपलब्ध माध्यम वा प्रविधिलाई समाचार सम्प्रेषणको लागि सदुपयोग गर्नु नै गाँठी कुरा हो । यस पृष्ठभूमिमा अनलाइन जस्तो प्रविधिलाई पत्रकारिताले अङ्गीकार गर्नु स्वाभाविकै हो । अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको उपयोगिता छ भन्ने पुष्टि गर्न कुनै तर्क गर्नु पर्ने वा प्रमाण अगाडि सारिरहनु पर्ने अवस्था छैन । यो त प्रष्टै छ । सञ्चार तथा सूचना प्रविधिको विकासका नयाँ आयामहरु कसरी विकास हुँदै जान्छन् र कसरी अनलाइन पत्रकारितालाई अधिकतम् सदुपयोग गर्न सकिन्छ भन्ने सवालचाहिँ हाम्रो सरोकार हुनु पर्छ ।

नेपालमा अझै पनि अधिकांश ठाउँमा इन्टरनेट सुविधा पु�याउन सकिएको छैन । यस्तो अवस्थामा अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको सम्भावना कतिको छ ?
सञ्चार तथा सूचना प्रविधिको विकासबाट लाभान्वित हुन सबैले समान रुपले पाइरहेका छैनन् । पहुँच, प्रयोग र उपयोगिताका हिसाबले असमानता विद्यमान छ । सूचना�सम्पन्न र सूचना�विपन्नबीचको खाडल टड्कारै देखिन्छ । नेपालको सन्दर्भमा पनि सञ्चार तथा सूचना प्रविधिको विकासको लहरबाट अझै पनि बहुसङ्ख्यक जनता परै छन् । यस पृष्ठभूमिमा अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको सामुन्नेमा थुप्रै प्रश्नहरु छन् । तर सञ्चार तथा सूचना प्रविधिको विकास अत्यन्त तीव्र गतिमा हुँदै गरेको तथ्यलाई पनि हामीले भुल्न मिल्दैन । सम्भावनाको मात्र कुरा गर्ने हो भने त यो अथाह सम्भावना बोकेको क्षेत्र हो । पत्रपत्रिका, रेडियो तथा टेलिभिजन माध्यमबाट गरिने पत्रकारिताका लागि लाग्ने खर्चको मात्रा दृष्टिगत गर्दा त नेपालजस्तो देशका लागि अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको उपादेयता झन् बढी छ भन्नु पर्ने हुन्छ ।

नेपालको वर्तमान समयमा अनलाइन पत्रकारिताले कस्तो भूमिका खेलेको छ ?
नेपालकै सन्दर्भमा केन्द्रित भएर कुरा गर्ने हो भने यो भर्खरैजसो उदाउँदै गरेको क्षेत्र हो । अवश्य नै अहिले पनि छापा पत्रकारिता तथा रेडियो�टेलिभिजन पत्रकारिताका तुलनामा अनलाइन पत्रकारिताको जन�पहुँच तथा व्यावसायिक भूमिका कमै छ । अहिलेसम्मको अवस्थामा यो अग्रणी बनिसकेको स्थिति होइन । यद्यपि यसले आफ्नो उपस्थिति गहकिलो भएको प्रमाणित गरिसकेको छ । नेपालभन्दा बाहिरको परिस्थितिसमेत विचार गर्ने हो भने संसारभरि छरिएर रहेका नेपाली समुदायले अनलाइन पत्रकारितालाई सहज रुपमा अङ्गीकार गरिरहेको छ र यस पक्षमा छापा तथा रेडियो�टेलिभिजनभन्दा अनलाइन नै अग्रणी छ ।

यसले समाज र जनताका लागि कति फाइदा पु�याइरहेको छ ?
यस्तै प्रश्न अन्य आमसञ्चारमाध्यमका परिप्रेक्ष्यमा पनि गर्न सकिन्छ । प्रविधि वा माध्यम आफैँले कसैलाई फाइदा वा बेफाइदा पु�याउने होइन । प्रत्युत तिनलाई हामीले कसरी प्रयोग गर्छौँ भन्ने कुरा प्रमुख हो । अनलाइन पत्रकारितालाई कसरी समाज र जनताका हितमा अधिकतम् सदुपयोग गर्न सकिन्छ भन्नेबारे चिन्तन�मनन र योजना निर्माण तथा कार्यान्वन हाम्रो प्राथमिकतामा पर्नु पर्छ ।

प्रसङ्ग बदलौँ; तपाईँले प्रतिपादन गर्नुभएको सञ्चारको साधारणीकरण ढाँचा (Sadharanikaran Model of Communication) लाई कसरी परिभाषित गर्नु हुन्छ ?
सञ्चारप्रक्रियालाई हिन्दू विश्वदृष्टिकोणबाट गरिएको सैद्धान्तिकरणको चित्रमय प्रस्तुति नै साधारणीकरण ढाँचा हो । यसले हिन्दू समाजमा सञ्चारप्रक्रिया कसरी व्यवहारित हुन्छ भन्ने कुरालाई प्रस्तुत गर्दछ । यसले हिन्दू समाजमा सहृदयताका लागि सञ्चार भन्ने मान्यता रहेको प्रष्ट्याउँछ ।

यो ढाँचा प्रतिपादन गरिनुको पृष्ठभूमिबारे प्रष्ट्याइदिनु हुन्छ कि !
पश्चिमा सन्दर्भमा सञ्चारको सैद्धान्तिक अध्ययन गरी सिद्धान्त र ढाँचाहरु निर्माण गर्ने लहर नै चलेकाले धेरैवटा सञ्चारढाँचाहरु बनाएका छन् । हाम्रोमा भने पहिलोपल्ट वि.सं. २०६० (सन् २००३) मा यो ढाँचा प्रस्तुत गरिएको हो । आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिता विषयमा एम.ए. को शोधपत्रमार्फत् मैले साधारणीकरण ढाँचा (SMC) प्रस्तुत गरेको थिएँ । प्राचीन साधारणीकरण सिद्धान्तलाई सञ्चार अध्ययनका सन्दर्भमा अर्थापन गर्दै एवं भरतमुनिको नाट्यशास्त्र र भर्तृहरिको वाक्यपदीय का आधारमा यसको निर्माण गरिएको हो । गैरपश्चिमा संस्कृतिलाई प्रतिनिधित्व गर्ने पहिलो सञ्चारढाँचा हुने गौरव यसले पाएको छ ।

आमसञ्चार र पत्रकारिताको अध्ययनका क्षेत्रमा नेपालको अवस्थालाई विश्वको अवस्थासँग कसरी तुलना गर्नुहुन्छ ?
सञ्चार तथा पत्रकारिताको अध्ययन विश्वका विभिन्न देशमा विभिन्न किसिमसँग भइरहेको छ । संस्कृति, मानव संसाधन तथा भौतिक संरचनात्मक विकास, यी अनेक पक्षमा रहेको विविधताका कारणले गर्दा फरक फरक ठाउँमा फरक फरक अवस्था हुनु स्वाभाविक पनि हो । केही समययता हामीले यस विधामा निक्कै प्रगति गरेका छौँ भन्न हिच्किचाउनु पर्दैन, तर सैद्धान्तिक र व्यावहारिक दुवै पाटामा हामीले गर्न बाँकी काम अझै धेरै छन् ।

नेपालमा सञ्चार तथा पत्रकारिताको अध्ययनलाई विकास गर्नका लागि के गर्नु पर्ला ?
सैद्धान्तिक अध्ययनकै सन्दर्भमा केन्द्रित भएर भन्नुपर्दा, बितेका धेरै वर्ष नेपालमा पश्चिमा सिद्धान्तहरुको अन्धानुकरण मात्र गर्नेखालको प्रवृत्ति देखिएको थियो । हालका वर्षहरुमा त्यस्तो प्रवृत्तिमाथि प्रश्न उठाउन थालिएको छ । तर प्रश्न मात्र उठाएर पुग्दैन, वैकल्पिक ज्ञान प्रणाली पनि विकास गर्न सक्नु पर्छ । नेपालमा वैश्विक र स्थानिक दुवै ज्ञानलाई समेट्ने गरी �ग्लोकल� (Glocal) अध्ययन पद्धतिलाई प्रबद्र्धन गर्नु पर्छ भन्ने मेरो मान्यता हो ।

By रामनाथ खनाल ,असनेपालन्युज

We live in mediated world. Mass media play a significant role in present society. However, understanding this significant entity is not easy. The term “mass media” encompasses a countless array of institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context. It may refer to the people, the policies, the organizations, and the technology that go into producing mass communication. Sometimes, the term is used just to mean various artifactual and/or mechanical means, such as books, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, film and the Internet, emphasizing the single components of the mass media. Often, the term refers to the media industry, also called the content industry. Mass media in general have complex relationship with various aspects of society such as cultures, ideologies, political systems, economic systems, technologies available, and so on

Controversies exist in the field of mass communication and media studies as in many other areas of academic fields/disciplines. There are differing ideas among scholars about understanding communication, its process and medium. Mediated communication is not an exception. Over the years, different theories have risen and then faded into the background and other theories and methods of studying mass communication have gained attention. Some theorists even argue that the mass media actually are declining and heading towards their demise. But other theorists argue that, despite the changing technology, the phenomenon persists within the whole institutional framework.

Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980), the “archpriest” of media analysis, argues that medium is the message. “What is most important are the media people watch or listen to, not the programs or texts carried by the media”, he opines. And, Tony Schwartz terms electronic media as “the second god.” However, this is to note that electronic media are experienced differently in societies with ‘non-Western’ characteristics. The dissimilarities are not just a matter of difference in economic development, since profound differences of culture and long historical occurrence are involved. The study of mass communication media cannot avoid dealing with questions of world-views and values and norms.

In one of the traditional thoughts in Hinduism, communication is the sharing among/ between sahridayas. Communication according to this concept is a relationship based on common and mutual understanding and feeling, for sahridaya literally means ‘of one heart’. Here, communication is for communion. Thus, communication is an inward search for meaning, a process leading to self-awareness, then to freedom, and finally to truth. The intra-personal dimension is of greater importance than the interpersonal (and other forms like mass communication) in the Vedic Hindu approach.

According to the orthodox Hindu belief, the body is only a temporary abode of atman, and it is an instrument for the attainment of moksha. The bodily self is not the ultimate truth though it is essential for the worldly existence. In fact, all worldly things are considered ephemeral, and the mundane world is just a transition on the way to the spiritual one. Understandably, medium or channel could be a constituent of a process of attaining mutual understanding, commonness or oneness among people: no more, no less.

When the place of medium or channel is considered in the light of Hindu world-view, it is a means, not the end. Certainly, the channel/medium is vital, but not more than the humans and the messages involved in the communication process and the ‘communication goal’ itself. Thus, the notions – medium as the message and media as the second god – do not seem in consonance to Hindu world-view. However, they may influence human conditions, and may even force to bring changes into human environments.

Present day mediated world is indeed a two-edged sword. Media are setting up new exchange systems, completely changing the conditions governing the transmission of knowledge, opening up a whole range of possibilities for making formal and non-formal education generally available, bringing culture to the people at large, and promoting knowledge and know-how. They are creating conditions that allow constant individual enrichment and enable the people of all nations to take part in their own advancement and to broaden their outlooks. At the same time, the ‘disembodiment’ or ‘de-personalization’ that McLuhan warned about just a few decades ago has, seemingly, become widespread. Some say that media have made us more violent and weakened our moral character. However, this issue needs more extended discourse than is intended here.

In brief, the mass media have both positive and negative dimensions. If we consider media as the second god or the message itself, we cannot be intelligent consumers of media. Rather, such notion promotes the idea of passive, tame and helpless receiver once claimed by the hypodermic needle theorists. But, the situation alters when we understand mass media just a means for our ‘communication goals’. The sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC), which underscores the notion of sahridayata as fundamental to profound understanding and warm co-existence among people, can substantially contribute in this regard.

For more discussion on the SMC, please visit:

http://sadharanikaran.com/

http://sadharanikarantheory.blogspot.com/

Abstract
This paper presents an assessment of journalism education in the universities of Nepal from gender perspective. Here, first various journalism curricula have been reviewed to observe that the existing curricula have excluded gender content, and then, the domination of male and exclusion of female in the curricular process have been highlighted. The paper, presenting instances from both the content and the context, shows that gender exclusion has been institutionalized in the field of journalism education in Nepali universities.

Key Words: Curriculum, Exclusion, Gender, Journalism education

At present, three Nepali universities have been offering tertiary level education on journalism and allied disciplines (see Table 1). Apart from (central) departments in the universities, various undergraduate and graduate colleges are also offering journalism courses according to the curricula set by the universities. And, journalism has already become part of the curricula for secondary and higher secondary level education. Moreover, some institutions are running journalism courses with affiliation to foreign universities/boards.
As it has been observed, “There are different nomenclatures used for the journalism and mass communication degrees and a number of terms are used synonymously. The terminologies like journalism, mass communication and media studies are very common when referring to the degree emphasis by universities in Nepal” (Pant, 2009, p. 20). The existing curricula on journalism/media/mass communication have been classified into following four (Humagain, Parajuli, Maharjan, and Panthi, 2010, p. 16):
1. Journalism and mass communication
2. Media studies
3. Media technology
4. Development communication
It is to note that all of them have incorporated papers/courses on journalism.

The paper is concerned with journalism education in the universities – Tribhuvan University (TU), Purvanchal University (PU), and Kathmandu University (KU) – themselves. Employing the qualitative approach, it first presents a review of the journalism curricula from gender perspective employing the conceptual content analysis technique. Then, the gender composition of institutional bodies responsible for development, implementation and supervision of the curriculum has been observed.

Exclusion of Gender Content in the Curricula

Though journalism education has witnessed significant progress, both in terms of quantity and quality, since its inception in 1976 (2033 B.S.) very few studies have been conducted on the curricular aspects. What follows is a review of nine different curricula set by TU, PU and KU. Of different courses incorporated in the curricula, all the courses are reviewed in case of specialized degrees, and only journalism and mass communication courses are reviewed in case of the degrees that offer journalism as optional. What follows hereafter in this section is based on the earlier study on journalism curricula in Nepal from gender perspective (Adhikary, 2010).

TU

TU offers courses on journalism and mass communication in BA and MA under annual system. The three-year BA curriculum incorporates journalism and mass communication as optional stream (one of the two majors). The curriculum consists of five papers on journalism and allied fields (a total of 500 marks). Though some cross-cutting issues, for instance, ethical considerations while covering sensitive issues related to women (rape victims, nudity), and ‘Sex and Violence in Media’, are mentioned the core journalism courses exclude gender approach and issues.

TU’s MA-JMC is two-year program, and it is specialization degree in journalism and mass communication. According to the curriculum, the students have to study ten papers (a total of 1,000 marks) including the Thesis. All the five papers in part I (First Year) are compulsory, where as the students choose four papers of their choice in part II (Second year) among eight subjects. Thesis is compulsory to all. Neither the curriculum incorporates any specific paper on gender nor any of the papers/subjects do have any units/sub-units and themes on gender or women issues.

Thus, the curricula of TU do not seem gender sensitive. They neither constitute an understanding of basic concepts and approaches for analyzing roles, relationships, and situations from a gender perspective, nor do they particularly consider gender based violence and other gender issues for journalistic reporting.

PU

PU alone offers six programs: BA-JMC, BA-MCJ, BMT, MA-Dev. Comm., MA-MCJ, and MMT.

BA- JMC is three-year program under annual system, and the curriculum consists of eight papers of 100 marks each (80 theories and 20 practical). Of them, there is not any paper that is exclusively concerned with gender contents. None of the papers do either have separate chapters or themes that address gender issues.

BA-MCJ is three-year, six-semester program. The curriculum is of 108 Credit hours. The students have to study 36 courses. Of them, there is not any course that is solely concerned with gender contents. However, three courses – Introduction to Literature [B.A.MCJ 406], Socio-Linguistic and Discourse Analysis [B.A. / MCJ 418], and Media about Human Rights and Democracy [B.A.MCJ 426] – contain some gender content. But, the core journalism courses lack gender perspective. However, above mentioned three courses may contribute for persuading teachers and students to adopt gender sensitivity.

BMT is three-year, six-semester program consisting of a curriculum of 110 Credit hours. The students have to study 37 papers. Of them, there is not any course that is exclusively concerned with gender contents. However, two courses – Media Issues (HR/Gender) [MIHR 2301] and Media and Communication [MC 2401] – contain gender content. Bout, none of the core journalism courses address gender approach and issues.

PU’s Master’s Degree in Development Communication, offered in four semesters, has the curriculum of 78 credit hours including thesis. Though a paper – Planning and Implementing Communication Campaign for Development (515) – contains gender content the core journalism courses lack gender approach and issues at all.

MA-MCJ is two-year, four-semester program. The curriculum is of 71 Credit hours and the students have to study 24 courses. Of them, an optional course – Media and Gender [MCJ 613 JOU] – is devoted to gender issues. However, its inclusion as an optional paper clearly limits its effectiveness even though this particular course seems focused on gender approach and issues. In fact, the number of students majoring this subject has been fairly low. Meanwhile, none of other courses, including the core journalism courses, incorporate gender perspective.

MMT is two-year, four-semester program. The curriculum is of 63 Credit hours and the students have to study 18 courses. Of them, none is devoted for gender content, and there is only one instance of what could be considered, if taken very broadly, being sensitive to gender equity. A paper – Writing for Broadcasting Media [MT 4313] – mentions the need of special considerations for women along with ethnic and other issues of social inclusiveness in broadcast media while producing talk shows and interview. Generally, the curriculum lacks gender sensitivity.

Thus, the curricula of PU have largely excluded gender content. Gender approach and issues have not been considered in the core journalism courses. Whenever some gender references are found in other courses, they do not seem imparting an understanding of basic concepts and approaches for analyzing roles, relationships, and situations from a gender perspective.

KU

KU offers BMS, a four-year, eight-semester program. Currently, the curriculum is of 131 Credit hours and consists of 48 courses (papers). Of them, there is no such course that particularly focuses on gender. Though some papers – including Introduction to Communication Theories [MEDS 101], State and Role of Media in Nepal [MEDS 102], English I [ENGL 151], English II [ENGL 152], Media, Culture and Society [MEDS 202], Advertising [MEDS 205], and Human Rights and Conflict Management [MEDS 351] –consider gender perspective the curriculum does not offer such contents that impart an in-depth understanding of basic concepts essential for gender sensitivity in general. And, the core journalism courses neither consider gender based violence and other gender issues for journalistic reporting nor do impart gender approach for different areas/beats of reporting.

Thus, it is evident that gender is not mainstreamed in the curricula under review. No curriculum has incorporated the gender as a foundation course thereby severely limiting the prospect for imparting theoretical grounding in gender. Even when some gender content is incorporated, the respective papers do not seem imparting an in-depth understanding of basic concepts and approaches for analyzing roles, relationships, and situations from a gender perspective. The core journalism courses in the curricula have completely excluded gender perspective and gender issues. None of them consider the gender dimension of the ‘newsworthy’ events/situations. Moreover, the core journalism courses do not seem considering gender based violence and other gender issues as significant area for news reporting and other journalistic writing.

Exclusion of Women in Institutional Bodies

In the earlier section, it is shown that the core journalism courses in the curricula have excluded gender perspective and gender issues. The politics of exclusion in the content is not an exception; rather, the universities have been practicing this institutionally. In other words, the domination of male and exclusion of female in the curricular process is the present reality of journalism education in the universities of Nepal.

The fact is clearly evident when gender composition of the institutional bodies responsible for development, implementation and supervision of the curriculum is observed. All the three universities have been completely excluding females in their Subject Committees. When there is provision of the Faculty Board, the practice of exclusion has been triumphant again. And, till now, none of the universities has appointed any female as the Dean of concerned Faculty/School. Likewise, only the males have been appointed as the Heads of the Department in TU and KU. Thus, all the actors in the decision making process of curricular development are exclusively men, and females have been absolutely excluded from the institutional bodies responsible in this regard.

The assessment of gender composition of academic faculties also sheds light on the practice of exclusion. Till now, TU has employed males only as permanent faculties of journalism in its Central Department of Journalism, and, likewise, KU’s only permanent faculty of media studies is a male. PU does not have any faculty of journalism in its own right though it alone offers six programs on journalism and allied disciplines. In case of various private/public colleges affiliated to TU and PU, the males comprise the colossal majority of the academic staff teaching journalism and mass communication whereas females constitute the majority of the students. Thus, the exclusion of women is apparent in case of the academic faculties too.

Concluding Remarks

Higher education is one of the most important institutions that can play a critical role in transforming and developing societies. And, the critical role of curriculum in educating, and thereby transforming societies, is apparent. A curriculum could be an effective tool for promoting gender sensitivity in teaching and learning primarily, and espousing sensitivity to a broad range of gender issues in the wider society in the long run. In other words, sensitivity to a broad range of gender issues, in general, and to gender based violence, in particular, could be promoted through curricula, and engendered curriculum will raise students’ awareness and sensitivity thereby enhancing critical thinking.

The forthcoming human resource with academic degrees on journalism is expected to play a significant role in media organizations and media support services, and also in educational institutions, development agencies and other service sectors. With this prospect, if journalism curricula consist of gender component, including gender based violence, they certainly contribute in promoting gender sensitivity in wider milieu. At least, journalism and media education curriculum could be a catalyst for change started from the classroom and aimed for intervention in a wider domain including media criticism from gender perspective and advocacy for gender friendly media content and structure.

The present study shows that gender is largely missing in the curricula under review. Particularly, the core journalism courses have completely excluded gender perspective and gender issues. In fact, gender has not been a consideration in the curricular process.

The exclusion of female from the institutional bodies including the Subject Committees has been common to all of the Nepali universities offering journalism education. The actors in the curricular processes have been exclusively men. Furthermore, the politics of exclusion seems in effect even in employing the academic faculties. At least, the universities have failed to practice gender equity in this regard. Taken all these facts into account, the institutionalization of gender exclusion is clearly observable.

References:

Adhikary, N. M. (2008). Nepalma media nitishastra adhyayan. Media Adhyayan, 3, 293-305.
Adhikary, N. M. (Ed.). (2010). Journalism curricula in Nepal: A study from gender perspective (Unpublished research report). Ekantakuna, Jawalakhel: Sancharika Samuha Nepal.
Humagain, D., Bhatta, K., and Adhikari, K. (2007). Media anusandhan: Prajnik purvadhar nirmanka kehi abhyas. Kathmandu: Martin Chautari.
Humagain, D., Parajuli, S., Maharjan, H., and Panthi, A. (2010). Media talim: Nepali abhyasko lekhajokha. Kathmandu: Martin Chautari.
Pant, L. D. (2009). Journalism and media education in Nepal: A critical overview. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3(1), 21-34.

About the Authors:
Adhikary is Asst. Professor and Subject Committee Member of Media Studies in Kathmandu University and member of the UNESCO Steering Committee for the Media Development Indicators (MDI) Assessment Research 2011. Formerly, he was the Head of the Dept. of Journalism and Mass Communication in Madan Bhandari Memorial College, Kathmandu.
Pant is communications expert under UNDP’s National Execution Service at LGCDP/MoLD. He has been the Head of the Dept. of Journalism and Mass Communication in National Integrated College, Kathmandu, and Visiting Faculty of Kathmandu University, Nepal and Dhaka University, Bangladesh.

- Nirmala Mani Adhikary

Communication, as a discipline of knowledge or as an academic field of study, has remained inherently problematic in many non-Western countries – Asians and Africans alike; Nepal being no exception. On the one hand, these countries indigenously inherit the concept of communication, and have been practicing it since time-immemorial. On the other, communication-as-modern-discipline-of-knowledge is borrowed from the West.

There must exist communication practice and theory in every living society. Thus a communication tradition, rich and refined both in theory and practice, should have been an inseparable part of Nepali culture as Nepal is the inheritor of culturally rich civilization. In this light, communication should be considered indigenous – both as practice and concept.

But, as a discipline of knowledge or as an academic field of study, curricula on communication have not been enriched with such indigenous content. In fact, the non-Western countries had three options while they were developing curricula of communication and/or allied disciplines. First, they could have drawn on native perspectives thereby primarily incorporating indigenous concepts, if not theories and models, of communication. Second, it was much easier for them to adopt solely the Western discursive paradigm. Third, they could have adopted comparative approach thus incorporating both indigenous and Western contents, and facilitating ‘indigenization’. Whereas indigenous theories are native, rooted in specific cultures, and emphasize the human experience in specific cultures; indigenization refers to processes of transforming U.S. theories so that they are appropriate in other cultures.

Of these, the adoption of the Western paradigm has been the general practice. Generally, the course curricula on communication and allied disciplines have been West-centric. There are profound reasons for this. I would like to mention three reasons. First, the ‘modern’ system of education itself has been adopted from the West. Second, as academic fields of study, communication, media, and journalism first gained recognition and evolved in the West, particularly in the USA. Third, most of all, the triumph of ‘globalization’ has been the decisive factor in this regard. ‘Globalization’ legitimizes unidirectional gateway for the flow of information. And, communication, as an academic field of study, has lackedS indigenous insights, and hence, it has been treated as an exogenous entity ‘imported’ from the West into non-Western countries.

In case of Nepal too, the study of communication in general, and communication theory in particular, has not been shaped in native perspectives. Even a cursory look at the curricula of Tribhuvan University (TU) and Purvanchal University (PU) is enough to observe that any indigenous concept/theory/model of communication is not incorporated there. The pattern is visible not only in case of communication theory, but in other areas of study also.

The issue should be viewed in a larger context. A general predisposition of considering ‘Americanization’/'Westernization’ as globalization is not new in Nepal. And, “‘West is the best’ psyche” is something that can be easily perceived. In this light, the acceptance of Western discursive paradigm and the rejection or apathy to native perspectives in the curricula implies that Westernization-as-Globalization has been the dominant paradigm for the discipline of communication in Nepal.

However, I have sought a different approach – ‘glocalization’, when I have an opportunity for designing the curriculum. In other words, I have sought to incorporate local contents and make the curriculum ‘glocalized’. I have been advocating de-westernization the curricula, and incorporating local/indigenous contents and perspectives. For instance, the curriculum we have adopted at KU contains Hindu, Buddhist and other theories/perspectives on communication in addition to the Western ones.

The very reason for such ‘glocalization’ in the curriculum is: this is the only way by which we can make the academic endeavor pertinent to our realities. We are in the age of ‘globalization’, it is true; but, still we are within particular society, culture, and space and time. The students who join our courses have to cope with both the local/national and the global/international. The incorporation of local contents owes to nationalism/patriotism, and to the consciousness of cultural identity.

I think localizing (and ‘glocalizing’) the course contents is essential for both practical and moral reasons. Practically, without the local contents the curriculum would be unrealistic to local realities and inapplicable in the local context. Any curriculum lacking the national/local/indigenous insights should also be rejected on moral ground. Our society represents old civilization with a known history of thousands of years and a distinct cultural identity of its own. It is the inheritor of culturally rich civilization rooted to the Vedic period. This reality must not be forgotten while designing and developing the curricula.

I would like to distinguish between local content and local issue. For me, to incorporate local content would mean incorporating some indigenous approaches/perspectives/theories/models. To accommodate local issue is another matter. For example, a professor may give example of some particular event from Nepal that follows Aristotelian pattern of communication even if the curriculum may stick to Western content (Aristotle’s model of communication) only. In such case, though local issue has been incorporated the curriculum is lacking originality. To incorporate local content, not merely the issue, is significant. As I have mentioned earlier, the curriculum we have adopted at KU contains Hindu, Buddhist and other theories/perspectives on communication in addition to the Western. Likewise, the course on media ethics has been designed in such a way that it deals with Hindu ethical principles in addition to the ethical principles accepted in the Western discursive paradigm. In sum, such contents facilitate ‘glocal’ understanding among the students.

Though Westernization-as-Globalization perspective is still dominant for the discipline of communication in Nepal, the emerging practices signify an ongoing paradigm shift. Of Nepali universities, KU has already taken a step forward by incorporating communication theories of Bharata Muni and Bhartrihari, and also sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC) in the BMS curriculum. We are yet to see, whether and when other universities in Nepal will be modify the West-centric paradigms with promotion of the indigenous communication scholarship.

1 comment:

While the core thought of this entry is extremely valid, I am extremely wary of taking binary positions of indigenous/Western. While it is true that most theories and models of communication are gained from the West and for the reasons rightly pointed out by the author, it is also important that we do not teach indigenous traditions as ‘alternative or local’ modes alone.

In fact it is important that we teach them as important and equal modes of communication especially in Asian context.

The binary position often does not allow two nodes to communicate with each other and that would be dangerous for both. Yes, it is true we shouldnt just import Western theories but it is also important that we understand that the debate over what is truly ‘local’ has intensified with globalisation.

Students are constantly facing the challenge of deciphering the global and local and hence what do we represent as ‘local’ can also be fraught with tensions and disagreements. What is local to some may not be for others!

And yet it is important we do so because only in communicating will we be able to represent ideas better. In India, Women’s Studies, Sociology and Cultural Studies are disciplines which are seriously studying Oral Traditions and are slowly incorporating them in syllabuses to balance out the disparities. But teachers continue to tread the binary line carefully because often it is easy to slip into ‘Us/Them’ framework.

Nonetheless, the argument by the author is important and my best wishes to the author. I look forward to more discussions.

Regards

Tina Aranha
Faculty
Wilson College
Mumbai, India

Physics, Mathematics, Statistics, Mass Communication, Journalism, English, Research Methodology, Hinduism, and Communication Theory — do they converge? If yes, for what? This article deals with these issues with reference to academic practices in the field of communication studies, and also to my personal experiences of being exposed across the aforesaid disciplines.

Note
The present article is revised version of my earlier article published in:

http://neltachoutari.wordpress.com/2010/05/01/toward-disciplined-multidisciplinarity-english-as-it-stands-for-me/

Physics, Mathematics, Statistics, Mass Communication, Journalism, English, Research Methodology, Hinduism, and Communication Theory — do they converge? If yes, for what? This article deals with these issues with reference to academic practices in the field of communication studies, and also to my personal experiences of being exposed across the aforesaid disciplines.

There seems an agreement on considering communication such discipline of knowledge, or academic field of study, that incorporates insights from a number of disciplines. Communication theory has most typically drawn from the humanities and social sciences. The field has also been enriched with the communication researches carried out by non-communication scholars such as political scientists, psychologists, sociologists, social-psychologists and linguists among others. In other words, communication has been theorized from various approaches. The trend seems to be accelerating thereby drawing on even newer disciplines. For instance, there are scholars who have highlighted that the natural sciences, medicine, and engineering are full of considerations of time, space, signals, distance, contact, which are central concerns and topics of communication theory.
Thus the discipline of communication has been multidisciplinary and it continues to be so. But, neither this means that communication is a secondary perspective that can be explained only by other disciplines, nor the multidisciplinary origin of communication makes it episodic. Rather, it is claimed that communication is primary to all social processes and therefore the existence of a discipline to explain the society from the standpoint of communication is understandable. In reality, communication itself has already been established as a discipline of knowledge in its own right. Communication’s disciplinarity can be understood as ‘disciplined multidisciplinarity’ where insights from all other disciplines engrave into its mainstream disciplinary framework.
My academic endeavors also resemble to that of communication discipline. I started my higher study as a student of science thereby studying physics, mathematics, and statistics chiefly. I did M.A. in Mass Communication and Journalism, and M. Phil. in English. My Ph. D. research deals with Hinduism, particularly the Bhatta School of Mimamsa philosophy and communication theory. Different roots; yet, unifying applications within the domain of communication discipline.
The first question raised above (“Do they converge?”) meets an affirmative end. It has been so, as explained above, in general. And, I have experienced so, in particular. Without the study of as diverse subjects as physics, mathematics, statistics, mass communication, journalism, research methodology, and Hinduism, it would be very hard for me to understand the disciplined multidisciplinarity of communication.
And, the convergence of various disciplines in the mainstream disciplinary framework of communication makes and has been making the discipline more dynamic, more comprehensive and livelier. The claim of communication as the base of the society and the locus that holds the society together demands the discipline to be all-encompassing in both approaches and applications, which is certainly impossible without multidisciplinary insights. In other words, the implications of disciplined multidisciplinarity not only broaden the discipline of communication, but also strengthen communication’s claim as the ‘center’ (contrasted to the ‘periphery’) as compared to other disciplines. At least, the disciplined multidisciplinarity certainly contributes — more than the episodic multidisciplinarity and the unidisciplinarity — to the better understanding of communication in a broader setting of the society.

Some opine that marketing tends to reduce the newspaper just like any other commodity at the cost of conventional responsibilities of journalism. However, there are others who consider that marketing would further strengthen the newspaper business thereby helping them to attain economic security and independence. According to such view, when journalism meets marketing, it reconsiders the significance of the audiences; however, in new perspective.

Commercial newspapers have two powerful and potentially conflicting obligations: to play a decisive informational role in their community’s life and to attract enough readers and advertisers to achieve financial stability. The dual nature of a commercial newspaper often forces uncomfortable compromises based on what the readers want, what the revenues will allow, and what the publisher expects. There are many newspaper experts, such as Joseph Pulitzer, who believe that the “profitability” is the only sure means to editorial autonomy and full independence for a commercial newspaper in a democratic society.

If we ask question what is journalism for? Then giving the answer is not so easy. The newspapers are mainly private, profit-making business with a special role: delivering information, opinion and entertainment to people. Thus newspapers have a social responsibility and are granted special freedoms protected by the Constitution. In other words a modern press or any type of media institution has a dual aspect: primarily, it is a medium of expression and communication of information and ideas; and it is also an industrial and business establishment that is carried on for profit.

The business/profit aspect of newspaper is getting more importance in these days. Likewise, the need of marketing and management approach in the newspaper business is accepted more and more. To meet various challenges, newspapers have been turned to marketing -the basic business function that has had helped other companies adapt to changing customers and environment. Various newspapers have changed their management functions as part of the incorporation of professional marketing.

The newspaper has been the public’s traditional source of news and the principal medium of advertising for business. But it enjoys no monopoly. The development of other means of imparting news and advertising means the newspaper must battle for its business. There are some basic factors that considered while evaluating the newspaper: annual volume of business, actual circulation, actual revenue per inch of advertising, goodwill and prestige, etc. After all, newspaper is a production that the circulation department has to sell. And, today newspaper circulation is recognized as commodity of value to advertisers. Newspaper publishing is a profession as well as a business. As a business newspapers survive by earning a profit.

In marketing term, a newspaper is also a “product”. We define a “product” as anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use, or consumption and that might satisfy a want or need. Broadly defined, products include physical objects, services, events, persons, places, organizations, ideas, or mixes of these entities. Thus it is clear that products include more than just tangible goods in the context of marketing. Service is a form of product that consists of activities that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Marketing experts say that a company’s offer to marketplace often includes both tangible goods and services. Each component can be a minor or a major part of the total offer. At one extreme, the offer may consist of a pure tangible good, such as soap, toothpaste, or salt. At the other extreme are pure services, for example, a doctor’s checkup. Between the two extremes, however, many goods and services combinations are possible.

Today, as information become more and more commoditized, the need for creating value for customers of any newspaper is felt much more than ever before. So many newspaper publishers are moving to a new level in creating value for their customers. Customers are those who purchase the newspaper or space within it; they include readers and advertisers.

To differentiate their offers (that is the particular newspaper), publishers are trying to develop and deliver total customer experience. Whereas products and services are external, experiences are personal and take place in the minds of individual consumers. Newspaper businessmen that market experiences realize that customers are really buying much more than just a printed-paper while purchasing a newspaper. They are buying what those “products” will do for them- the experiences they gain in purchasing and consuming these newspapers.

Research on why readers use mass media has found that media satisfy dozens of psychological needs such as cognitive needs, affective needs, intra-personal integrative needs, and interpersonal integrative needs. Research revealed that readers use mass media also for escapist needs related to easing tension. As a product, newspaper purchase and use represent a conscious decision, whether habitual or new, made by someone with a particular goal in mind. Knowing what those goals are aids circulation sales. When developing products, marketers first must identify the core consumer needs the product will satisfy. They must then design the actual product and find ways to augment it in order to create the bundle of benefits that will best satisfy consumers.

Some opine that marketing tends to reduce the newspaper just like any other commodity at the cost of conventional responsibilities of journalism. However, there are others who consider that marketing would further strengthen the newspaper business thereby helping them to attain economic security and independence. According to such view, when journalism meets marketing, it reconsiders the significance of the audiences; however, in new perspective.

Adhikary is Assst. Professor of Media Studies in Kathmandu University and member of the UNESCO Steering Committee for the Media Development Indicator (MDI) Assessment Research 2011. He has authored/edited more than two-dozen books. Formerly, he was the Head of the Dept. of Journalism and Mass Communication in Madan Bhandari Memorial College, Kathmandu.
Email: nirmalam.adhikary@gmail.com

One of the distinctive features of media production is that it has to deal with changing environment of the world. This is contrary to other industrial products. They produce products which are more or less similar to each other. Unlike them media industry has to go through stages of gatekeeping including identifying, selecting, reporting and processing to each and every product. The processes of framing and priming are part and parcel of media content producers.

Some news events may be one-off time, such as a particular game show, or a particular television talk show but many events are routine base. While presenting media content, persons involved in it try to develop a standardized format for the presentation. Especially, in today’s competitive environment each medium sees to another one to know what the counterpart is doing. Also, many texts are prepared by a single agency for various media. Not only news agencies, but also feature syndicates too, have been producing and disseminating contents that are placed in dozens, if not hundreds, of outlets around the world. So there is obvious chance of following a standardized format by various media.

Standardization is a standard way of presenting media contents. This concept had come for the sake of media industry’s efficiency in producing media content as well as for the sake of audiences’ easiness to receive and understand the content. It may be thought as universalizing the structure of presentation of media content and hence is useful in developing media literacy too. The standardization is viewed as beneficial to audiences. It helps audiences to understand the media content. Audiences conventionally get media content and they receive it as usual. Without standardization they may lack usual format of news story presentation and hence feel uneasy. The inverted pyramid format of news presentation is a typical example of standardization.

The standardization should be evaluated comparing with imitation. In these days, mass media are competing for the same source of revenue. That is, they have to compete to earn their revenue from the same audience. Thus they tend to, and, in fact, have to, see whether any content delivered may be accepted by the audience or not. If competitor’s certain program or story is getting higher ratings, then one obviously tries to change his lacking program. Then there is possibility of imitation. Various family drama serials and game shows dominant in TV channels are such examples.

Such programs, containing same theme and presenting imitating episodes, are actually trying to attract same kind of audiences. They are competing with the same type of content. By doing so, they are treating their audiences only as the components of their market offer. That is, they are just trying to collect more audiences and then handover the “number” to advertisers. They know the fact that greater the number of audiences greater is the chance to get advertisement. Standardization is different from that of imitation. Imitation undermines the audiences and just copy what others are doing. Generally, commercial media use to practice imitation.

The practice of imitation undermines the actual needs of audiences and seeks to make profit by delivering the “hot cake” contents. There is no scope for innovativeness. This imitation is different from that of standardization. Generally the imitation is supposed to be in favor of producer. There are some critics who say that even standardization is also in favor of producers. It is believed that imitation brings immediate profit. At least, it can be said that the purpose of imitation is to get immediate profit.

There are many ethical controversies regarding the imitation in the context of media content. As we know, different sets of audiences have different characteristics, different background and different needs. Any program or media content prepare in view of specific set of audience may not be relevant to others. But the process of imitation doesn’t count this fact. It is imposing whatever is in disposal to the audiences. Hence some critics opine that the imitation is just cheating.

Media need their audiences more than audiences need media. The main product issue has to do with the genre of the media service, especially questions of adequate quality and choice for the consumer of content. Since media depend on volunteer choices of their audiences, effectiveness and profit will come together. So cheating to audience is much harmful to the corresponding mass medium itself.
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पाठ्यपुस्तक, सन्दर्भ पुस्तक, सहयोगी पुस्तक, तालिम पुस्तक, स्वतन्त्र अनुसन्धानमूलक पुस्तकको क्षेत्र (स्कोप) घोषित उद्देश्य एवं लक्ष्यित पाठकका सन्दर्भमा कसी लगाएर मात्र निष्कर्षमा पुग्नु पर्ने हुन्छ । जस्तै : लेखक/सम्पादक स्वयंले उच्चमाध्यमिक तहका लागि सहयोगी पुस्तक वा पाँचहप्ते तालिमका लागि तयार पारिएको पुस्तक भनिसकेपछि त्यसलाई कसी लगाउँदा सोही मापदण्ड लागू गर्नु पर्छ भने सन्दर्भ पुस्तकको मूल्याङ्कन गर्दा त्यतिले पुग्ने कुरै भएन ।
आमसंचार तथा पत्रकारिताबारे नेपाली लेखक/सम्पादकद्वारा उत्पादित पुस्तक सबै महान् गुण सम्पन्न छन् वा सबै पत्रु छन् भन्नु अतिसामान्यीकृत गैरजिम्मेवार कुरा हुन् । यी पुस्तकहरु पनि अन्यत्रका र अन्य विधाका पुस्तकहरुझैँ नै उच्च, मध्यम र सामान्य स्तरका छन् । अनेक ‘नीर-क्षीर-विवेकी’ समीक्षकहरुले अन्तर्वस्तु एवं पाठविश्लेषण गरिसकेपछि मात्र टिप्पणीका आधारहरु खडा हुनेछन् । ती टिप्पणी पनि संख्या र गुणस्तर दुवैको सहअस्तित्वका पक्षमा हुनु वांछनीय छ ।

(अधिकारी भाषा तथा आमसंचार विभाग, काठमाडौँ विश्वविद्यालयमा प्राध्यापन गर्छन् । विगतमा विभिन्न पत्रपत्रिकाका सम्पादक, विभिन्न अनुसन्धान परियोजनाका निर्देशक एवम् मदन भण्डारी मेमोरियल कलेजमा पत्रकारिता विभागका प्रमुख रहिसकेका अधिकारीका दुई दर्जन भन्दा बढी पुस्तक-कृतिहरुका साथै राष्ट्रिय-अन्तर्राष्ट्रि प्रकाशनमा दर्जनौँ अनुसन्धान एवं सयौँ विश्लेषणात्मक लेखहरु प्रकाशित भइसकेका छन् ।)